Long-term Athlete Development Research Articles

Strength and Conditioning in the Young Athlete for Long-Term Athletic Development

The safety and efficacy of youth strength and conditioning programs depend on proper instruction, coaching, and supervision. Types of training include bodyweight strengthening, resistance bands, medicine balls and weights, agility, plyometrics, and cardiovascular exercise. These should be preceded by a proper warm up using a combination of static stretching, self-myofascial release, dynamic warm-ups, and sport-specific warm-ups. Coaches and trainers should consider the athlete’s age, maturity level, cognitive ability, puberty status, sport volume, and readiness levels in designing and supervising strength and conditioning programs. This review article covers the latest evidence supporting training to improve movement skills and promote long-term athletic development, while also preventing injury, for young athletes.

Improving coaches and parents' knowledge and attitude towards sport sciences implementation: a community-based program in football schools (SSB) in Sleman

Introduction: Many young athletes joined football schools (SSB) to gain and improve their skills, aiming to participate further in high-level competitions. However, most SSB management lacked comprehension of sports sciences, essential to support young athletes' growth and development and improved sports performance. This program aimed to improve coaches' and parents' knowledge and attitudes towards sports sciences and its implementation in SSB. Methods: Involving representatives from 13 SSBs in Sleman, an integrated training on sports sciences comprising of long-term athlete development (LTAD), nutrition and psychological development for young athletes, coaching program, and management of SSB was carried out. Knowledge was measured before and after training using questionnaires consisting of multiple-choice questions (MCQ). A focus group discussion (FGD) was also conducted to assess participants' knowledge and attitudes about implementing sports sciences in SSB. Changes in knowledge scores were analyzed using the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. Results: Thirty-five participants completed both pre-test and post-test, whereas only 17 participated in the FGD. The mean score during the post-test increased significantly by 12.71 points compared to the pre-test (74.29 vs. 61.58, p<0.05) with increased passing rate (57.14% vs 25.71%). Individual's change in knowledge improved by 28.83%. As stated during FGD, participants believed in the benefits of implementing sports sciences on athletes' growth and development, health, well-being, and performance. They also believed in the possibility of implementation, considering the growing number of licensed coaches. However, the inhibiting factors might be a lack of capable human resources, funding, readiness, and knowledge. Fortunately, a few SSBs reported having partially implemented sports sciences, and all SSBs are willing to start implementing sports sciences by educating all involved parties regarding sports sciences. Conclusion: These findings concluded the program's success and the promising possibility of sports sciences implementation in SSB.

Physical Characteristics, Functional Movements and Coaching Style in Basketball

This study aims to develop a basketball player development plan based on assessing the effects of physical characteristics and functional movements on male and female students' performance in basketball. It incorporates Long Term Athletic Development (LTAD) frameworks to guide the training, competition, and recovery of student-athletes. The LTAD stages range from the active start, focusing on basic movements, to training to win, concentrating on high-level competition preparation. The research is significant for students, parents, teachers, and department heads, providing a structured approach to enhancing players' skills and ensuring safety during play. The methodology involves a quantitative approach, utilizing descriptive comparative-correlational research design to explore the relationship between functional movement, coaching style, and physical characteristics in basketball. The study encompasses students from multiple institutions, employing total enumeration sampling for comprehensive data collection. Ethical considerations emphasize informed consent, the right to withdrawal, and confidentiality. The findings aim to inform an enhanced player development plan, contributing to the academic and athletic success of college students.

Comparison of physical fitness and game demands between young female rugby sevens athletes in different sports development contexts

Aim: This study aimed to compare the physical and game demands among young women rugby sevens athletes inserted in a long-term athlete development process (LTAD) and selected to the national team. Methods: Twenty-four athletes were recruited in two different contexts: thirteen participants were inserted in the LTAD process (VSR) and eleven Brazilian athletes were selected for the youth national team (BRA). One-repetition-maximum tests, jumping performance, sprint times, and aerobic capacity determined the physical performance and GPS recorded the game demands in the national championship. T-tests for independent samples and Mann-Whitney were used to compare the groups, and effect size (ES) was presented using Cohen's d. Results: 10-m sprint time (p = 0.001; ES = 1.47), 30-m sprint time (p = 0.005; ES = 1.42), sprint distance (p = 0.030; ES = 1.14) and distance in zone 5 (p = 0.040; ES = 0.92) showed differences between groups, with better results in BRA. Moreover, VSR athletes covered greater distances in zone 1 while BRA had greater distances in zone 4, with moderate ES. The strength, power of lower limbs, and aerobic fitness variables did not present significant differences between the groups. However, VSR had the highest mean in squat jump and countermovement jump, with moderate ES. Conclusion: Speed in physical tests and game demands differentiated the groups, and these parameters are essential for selection for the national team. However, the LTAD process can bring physical

Early Sport Specialization in the Sphere of Long-Term Athlete Development: The Responsibility of Parents and Soccer Coaches Involved in This Process

Due to the significant growth of participants in sports around the world, this article aims to identify the effects of early specialization, as well as the roles and responsibilities of the professionals and people involved in athlete development, especially in the context of soccer. It describes the phases of Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) as a platform for youth sport coaches to encourage and support participants of all levels to reach their full potential and stay involved in the sport. The article provides strategies for soccer coaches to develop their activities and training sessions in alignment with the phases of the LTAD, along with an adequate pedagogical approach to avoid the negative effects of early sport specialization.

Dual sport career experiences of student-athletes studying in South Africa and the USA

Background: Institutions of higher education are hubs for student-athletes pursuing dual careers, in sports and higher education. The concepts of dual careers, transition models and support systems for student sports provide the conceptual framework for this study.Objectives: The study investigated the dual sports career experiences of South African track and field student-athletes who studied at universities in South Africa and the United States of America (USA). Objectives determined satisfaction in terms of student-athlete support systems in their chosen localities.Method: This qualitative study used a purposive sample of 12 participants from a general population of South African junior track and field athletes who pursued dual careers. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews.Results: The respondents found the US National Association Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) sports system superior to the South African sports system. The dual-career student-athletes transitioning through the last two stages of the South African Long-Term Athlete Development model reported a lack of support that negatively impacted the success of their dual career balance.Conclusion: The South African context of student sport is not generally conducive to creating and enabling a dual sports–academic career environment because of insufficient contextual, processional and sports-specific factors. The participants perceived the NCAA system of student sport as holistic and supportive of their dual-career development.Contribution: This study adds to the limited pool of knowledge relating to the dual-career development of student-athletes, and provides a base line for future research studies.

Talent Management Processes as Predictors of Long-Term Athlete Development in Sports Organizations in Burundi

Talent Management Processes as Predictors of Long-Term Athlete Development in Sports Organizations in Burundi

Developmental activities of elite junior hockey players: an analysis of early sport specialization.

Early sport specialization is a popular and contentious topic in the scientific literature and popular media. The lure of extrinsic rewards has led to increasing rates of specialization among young athletes, while expert recommendations promote multisport participation. The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze developmental activities of a group of elite junior hockey players in Canada. Within this context, elements of specialization were investigated in accordance with existing theoretical frameworks and long-term athlete development models to enhance the literature. Fifteen participants from the Ontario Hockey League completed quantitative retrospective interviews, detailing past sport and recreational activities. Thirty-one developmental milestones were assessed. Accumulated hours of activity were categorized in accordance with Côté's (1999) Developmental Model of Sports Participation, along with the number and types of sports in which they participated during childhood. Jayanthi et al.'s (2015) continuum was utilized to determine the age at which the athletes became moderately and highly specialized. Accrued hours of deliberate practice reported by participants increased from ages 6 to 16 years, as did competition in organized hockey games. Reported hours of deliberate play peaked at 9 years of age and decreased thereafter. Participants played a combined 16 sports other than hockey, ranging from an average of 2.0 at age 6, to a maximum average of 5.6 at 12 years old, and decreasing each year to 2.3 by age 15. The greatest number of hours in other sports was accumulated at 12 years of age. Using a three-point scale, participants considered themselves "highly specialized" at 14 years old; however, other quantitative indicators suggested this may have occurred at 12 years of age. Relative to previous research on early sport specialization, participants in this study spent more time practicing hockey, while ceasing hockey-specific play and other sports at younger ages. Despite a diverse sport history, hockey competition was initiated earlier than recommended, showing high levels of sport commitment as young as 9 years old. The early specialization path remains a popular trajectory among coaches, parents, and athletes in Canadian ice hockey.

Features of planning training loads of coordinating orientation in young female volleyball players aged 10-17, taking into account their age development

Background and Study Aim. In the context of youth sports development, it is imperative to emphasize the critical importance of a comprehensive understanding of coordinating orientation training in young female volleyball players. Given the significant variations in physical and neurological growth patterns within this age group, addressing the methodological nuances of tailored training programs becomes paramount. This study aims to substantiate specific methodological approaches for planning coordination training among young female volleyball players, with a keen focus on accommodating the unique intricacies of their developmental journey. Material and Methods. Participants in this study included female volleyball players aged 10 (n=25), 11 (n=20), 12 (n=30), and 13 (n=20). The second phase of the study involved the analysis of four years of observations of female volleyball players aged 14 to 17 (n=24), who were carefully selected from a large pool of young candidates. Prior to their participation, both the children and their parents were provided with detailed information about the study, and informed consent was obtained. In the study, a series of tests were utilized, including “Backward Throw to Target”, “Stepping over a gymnastics stick”, “'Running to numbered balls”, and “Backward Shuttle Run (3x10 m)”. An expert assessment was conducted, involving the participation of highly qualified specialists (n=25). Results. The study has demonstrated a substantial increase in coordination abilities among female volleyball players aged 10 to 17. A significant improvement was observed in kinesthetic differentiation abilities (2.3 times). A somewhat smaller increase was noted in their abilities to coordinate and restructure movements and spatial orientation (1.4-1.6 times). The most pronounced and statistically significant improvements were observed in the age group of 10 to 12 years. Changes in volleyball players aged from 12 to 13 and from 13 to 14 in tests assessing the development of spatial orientation and coordination of movements were less apparent. Motor coordination indicators improved significantly in the age group of 14 to 16. Conclusions. The identification of age-related characteristics in the development of coordination abilities is crucial for implementing the principle of aligning biological development with pedagogical and training methods. Understanding the various ontogenetic stages is essential for effectively managing the long-term athletic development of young female volleyball players.

Predicting future stars: Probability and performance corridors for elite swimmers

ObjectivesTo evaluate the new age groups of the World Junior Championships in swimming from a scientific perspective, establish benchmarks and performance corridors that predict success at peak performance age and compare performance corridors between men and women and short-, middle-, and long-distance freestyle races. DesignLongitudinal big data analysis. MethodsIn total, 347,186 annual best times of male (n = 3360, 561 ± 177 Swimming Points) and female freestyle swimmers (n = 2570, 553 ± 183 Swimming Points) were collected across all race distances at peak performance age and retrospectively analyzed throughout adolescence. Cumulative Poisson distribution was used to calculate probabilities of becoming world-class finalist, international-class, or national-class swimmer for each age group. Performance corridors were expressed relative to the World Record and compared between performance levels, sex, race distances, and age groups with a 2-way analysis of variance. ResultsFemales are required to swim faster relative to the World Record at a younger age and show earlier performance plateaus than males at national and international levels. Additionally, world-class long-distance finalists show higher Swimming Points earlier in their career compared to short-distance swimmers. This effect is more distinctive in females than males. ConclusionsBased on the sex-specific performance corridors and developments, the newly aligned age groups for the World Junior Championships are questionable regarding long-term athlete development. Based on race times from 131 nations, the present benchmarks provide valid international normative values to predict success chances at peak performance age and guide young swimmers along their talent pathway.

A comparison of the match action characteristics of scholarship, academy, and senior rugby league: influence on career progression

ABSTRACT This study aimed to (1) compare individual player match action characteristics between scholarship, academy, and senior (European Super League, ESL) levels of the rugby league player pathway, and (2) compare match actions between players that have progressed to play ESL and those that did not. Data was collected on 147 players from 95 senior, 69 academy, and 23 scholarship matches over three seasons. Matches were filmed via 2 angles and 26 match action characteristics (e.g. carry, missed tackle) were coded. Linear mixed models identified 48 significant differences in match action characteristics when accounting for playing position between playing levels. Over seventy percent of the differences were defensive match actions, indicating there are higher defensive match demands in the ESL when compared to academy and scholarship match play. Seven and eleven match actions characteristics were identified at scholarship and academy levels that differentiated between players who had progressed to play in the ESL and those who had not. All but one of these characteristics were attacking match actions, indicating a player’s attacking qualities are important in their progression to the ESL. These results have implications for both talent identification and long-term athlete development in rugby league.

Physiological Characteristics of Competitive Male Junior Cyclists Transitioning to the Under-23 Level: A Retrospective Comparative Study.

The purpose of the current investigation was to retrospectively assess possible differences in physiological performance characteristics between junior cyclists signing a contract with an under-23 (U23) development team versus those failing to sign such a contract. Twenty-five male junior cyclists (age: 18.1 [0.7]y, stature: 181.9 [6.0]cm, body mass: 69.1 [7.9]kg, peak oxygen uptake: 71.3 [6.2]mL·min-1·kg-1) were assigned to this investigation. Between September and October of the last year in the junior category, each cyclist performed a ramp incremental exercise test to determine certain physiological performance characteristics. Subsequently, participants were divided in 2 groups: (1)those signing a contract with a U23 development team (JUNIORU23) and (2)those failing to sign such a contract (JUNIORNON-U23). Unpaired t tests were used to assess possible between-groups differences in physiological performance characteristics. The level of statistical significance was set at P < .05 two tailed. No significant between-groups differences in submaximal (ie,gas exchange threshold, respiratory compensation point) and maximal physiological performance characteristics (ie,peak work rate, peak oxygen uptake) expressed in absolute values (ie,L·min-1, W) were observed (P > .05). However, significant between-groups differences were observed when physiological performance characteristics were expressed relative to the cyclists' body weights (P < .05). The current investigation showed that junior cyclists stepping up to a U23 development team might be retrospectively differentiated from junior cyclists not stepping up based on certain physiological performance characteristics, which might inform practitioners and/or federations working with young cyclists during the long-term athletic development process.

Implementing Long-Term Athletic Development Within K–12 Physical Education

Many adolescents lack the requisite physical preparation for sport participation and PA. Multi-sport participation and resistance training during youth (age 5-11) and adolescence (age 12-17) years can positively effect physical activity levels, health outcomes, and promote long-term athletic development (LTAD). The National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) created a position statement regarding LTAD. K-12 schools provide an ideal environment to deliver LTAD programs. Limited literature exists regarding how best to implement LTAD within K-12 physical education. The purpose of this paper is to provide physical educators with strategies to implement LTAD within K-12 programming. In this paper, we have described how specific curriculum models are aligned with LTAD and can support developmentally appropriate progression of PE content across instructional levels. Implementation of LTAD programs within PE utilize standards based curriculum design to create multi-curricular offerings that include resistance training.

Macro periodisation of competition in international women's tennis: Insights for long-term athlete development

Aims This study reports the multi-year periodised international competition engagement of elite top 100 [T100] and 250 [T250] female tennis players during their youth. Methods Tournament data was analysed for 258 female players from 13 to 18 years of age. Players were categorised into groups based on peak professional ranking of T100 or T250. ‘Fast’ or ‘slow’ achieving T100 players were further classified according to the years taken to achieve a professional T100 status. International tournament and match volumes were quantified for junior and professional categories, along with measures of competition density (i.e., time between tournaments and consecutive tournaments). Tournament quality and category were determined by ranking point offerings. A two-way analysis of variance determined the effects of age and ranking group on tournament play. Results Significant interaction effects for age and ranking group were observed for all junior and professional category tournaments ( p &lt; .05). Significantly higher annual junior tournament volumes featured in the schedules of T100 at ages 14 and 15 ( p &lt; .05) while participation in annual professional tournaments increased for all players at ages 17 and 18 ( p &lt; .05). The top 100 players played more annual matches than the T250 group at 14–16 years ( p &lt; .05). Significant main effects for age revealed decreased days between tournaments and increased consecutive tournaments at 15 years ( p &lt; .05). Conclusions Increased volume and density of tournament-play exist from 14 years professional female tennis players. Faster achieving T100 players contest higher-quality junior and professional tournaments at earlier ages. These distinctive tournament characteristics can underpin training and competition scheduling recommendations used by national tennis federations.

The relationship between relative lower-body strength, sprint and change of direction ability in elite youth female soccer athletes

Soccer is described as a high-intensity, multidirectional sport requiring athletes to possess a high level of physical conditioning to compete at the elite level. Strength, linear sprint and change of direction (COD) abilities are key physical characteristics in soccer-specific performance, with research suggesting athletes who possess greater relative lower-body strength are superior in sprint and COD ability. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between relative lower-body strength with linear sprint and COD ability among elite youth female soccer athletes in Western Australia. Forty-four (U13, n  =  11; U14, n  =  12; U15, n  =  11; U19, n  =  10) athletes completed an isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), 30 m sprint and 505 COD test. Results demonstrated a significant moderate correlation between relative IMTP (IMTPr) performance and 10 m ( r  =  −0.315, p  =  0.037) and 30 m ( r  =  −0.0347, p  =  0.021) sprint time, however, there was no significant correlation between IMTPr performance and COD deficit ( r  =  −0.227, p  =  0.168). This study suggests that relative lower-body strength is moderately related to greater sprint performance but not COD ability in elite youth female soccer athletes. Overall, relative lower-body strength appears to be advantageous to linear sprint performance in elite youth female soccer athletes, and therefore the inclusion of appropriate and targeted strength training in the physical preparation and long-term athlete development of this demographic may be recommended.

Physical Conditioning Development in Youth: An Exploration of Long-Term Athlete Development Models

Physical Conditioning Development in Youth: An Exploration of Long-Term Athlete Development Models

To Sample or to Specialise? Sport Participation Patterns of Youth Team Sport Male Players

This study characterised the sport participation patterns of 546 male youth team sport players. A retrospective questionnaire was used to identify the sport starting age (general sports and main sport) and the quantity and type of sports undertaken during the early years of development. A mixed-ANOVA and Chi-square tests were implemented. All participants started involvement in sports at the same age (~5 years) and participated in the same number of sports during their early years (1 to 2 sports). However, football players started participating mainly in team games (football, futsal) and water polo players in CGS sports (swimming). Participants reported different ages for initial participation in: (i) main sport (football players started participating earlier, around 5-6 years), (ii) onset of specialisation (football players specialised earlier, around 7 or 8 years), (iii) types of sports engaged in (football players were involved in more team games and water polo in more CGS sports), and (iv) variations in weekly training hours (water polo reported more hours of training). This study provided empirical evidence for understanding the effects of different sporting pathways on long-term athlete development. Some key incongruities between contemporary knowledge and practice are acknowledged. Further investigations should be developed by examining the trajectories in different sports, countries, genders, and cultural contexts.

Macro periodisation of competition in international women’s tennis: a long-term athlete development perspective

Introduction: Competition profiles of future successful female tennis players are limited to anecdotal evidence and case reports. Consequently, Federations are challenged in providing empirically supported recommendations to players that align with previous research on ranking trajectories that distinguish future top 100 (T100) players. Accordingly, this study differentiated the international competition engagement of elite (T100 and top 250 [T250]) female tennis players during their youth (13-18y).

Training, Wellbeing and Recovery Load Monitoring in Female Youth Athletes.

Participation in youth sports is ever-increasing, along with training and competition demands placed upon youth athletes. Young athletes may experience high training loads due to playing several sports, as well as participating in school physical education. Therefore, monitoring youth athlete load is an emerging area of research that may help limit non-functional overreaching, injury, or illness and assist with long-term athlete development. This narrative review highlights that multiple measures have been explored to monitor both internal and external load. However, the validity, reliability and practicality of these measures are often not fully understood in female youth populations. The most commonly used external monitoring methods are GPS tracking and TRIMP whereas common internal monitoring tools are questionnaires, perceived exertion rating and heart rate measures. The reporting of injuries and menstrual cycles is also crucial for providing completeness when monitoring an athlete. It has been suggested that the combination of training load, recovery and wellbeing monitoring variables is the optimal way to monitor an athlete’s fatigue levels. Whichever monitoring method is applied, in a youth population it is important that the protocol can be individualised, is inexpensive and can be easily implemented and reported so that the monitoring is sustainable.

The Influence of Maturity Status on Dynamic Balance Following 6 Weeks of Eccentric Hamstring Training in Youth Male Handball Players.

Information about when to apply an appropriate eccentric hamstring strength training stimulus during long-term athlete development is essential for effective programming and improving balance performance. This study examined the effects of six-week eccentric hamstring training on dynamic balance performance in youth handball players of different maturity statuses (pre- or post-peak height velocity (PHV)). A randomized controlled design with 45 young male handball players (14.6 ± 0.3 years) from a local national handball club were randomly allocated to a 6 week, twice weekly eccentric hamstring training in two experimental groups: a pre-PHV (maturation offset: −2.13 ± 0.63, n = 10) and post-PHV (maturation offset: 0.79 ± 0.34, n = 12) group and two control groups: maturation offset: −2.09 ± 0.61, n = 10 and maturation offset: 0.55 ± 0.67, n = 13. Dynamic balance performance was evaluated by using the composite score during the lower quarter Y-balance test from pre- and post-intervention. A significant effect on balance scores was found from pre to post (F = 11.4; p = 0.002; η2p = 0.22), intervention (F = 5.4; p = 0.025; η2p = 0.12), and maturation (F = 369; p < 0.001; η2p = 0.9), but no significant interaction effects were found (F ≥ 3.3; p ≥ 0.077; η2p ≤ 0.07). Post hoc analysis revealed that the post-PHV group had a higher score than the pre-PHV group. Furthermore, that dynamic balance increased in the post-PHV group after intervention much more in the control post-PHV group. It was concluded that somatic maturation influences dynamic balance performance and that eccentric hamstring training results in greater improvement in balance performance in young male handball players for the post-pubertal group.